Monday, December 23, 2019

Critical Analysis of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor...

Critical Analysis of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge spearheaded a philosophical writing movement in England in the late 18th and early 19th century. Although Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge are often considered the fathers of the English Romantic movement, their collective theologies and philosophies were often criticized but rarely taken serious by the pair of writers due to their illustrious prestige as poets. The combined effort in the Lyrical Ballads catapulted their names into the mainstream of writers in 1798 and with this work; they solidified their place in English literature. Although, most people fail to note that the majority of Coleridges and Wordsworths work†¦show more content†¦Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth was the piece of work that established him as an accomplished poet. The work was considered a collaboration between Wordsworth and Coleridge but was originally published anonymously. A lot had been made of their friendship where each would comment on each other?s p oetry but it must also be noted that Coleridge was in dire need of money. He had hoped to travel to Germany to study and when the book was published, and it helped to pay for his trip. In the Advertisement of Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth says the following about the content of his work: The majority of the following poems are to be considered as experiments. They were written chiefly with a view to ascertain how far the language of conversation in the middle and lower classes of society is adapted to the purposes of poetic pleasure. Readers accustomed to the gaudiness and inane phraseology of many modern writers, if they persist in reading this book to its conclusion, will perhaps frequently have to struggle with feelings of strangeness and awkwardness: they will look round for poetry, and will be induced to enquire by what species of courtesy these attempts can be permitted to assume that title. It is desirable that such readers, for their own sakes, should not suffer the solitary word Poetry, a word of very disputed meaning, to stand in the way of their gratification; but that, while they are perusing this book, they should ask themselves if it contains aShow MoreRelatedThe Concept of the Individual in Literature of the Romantic Period1762 Words   |  8 Pagesra tionalization of nature and neglect of the individual upheld by the Enlightenment Movement. In order to demonstrate this, a close analysis of some poetic works by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth and William Blake will be examined. The Romantic period placed great importance on creativity, imagination and the value of the self, Wordsworth and Coleridge were particularly influential in Britain with regards to the burgeoning of the movement. The movement of romanticism and its concernRead MoreThe Rime Of The Ancient Mariner1484 Words   |  6 Pages Hill English IV 20 April 2016 THE RIME OF THE ANCIENT MARINER: The Mariner The Albatross, and The Song The story the rime of the ancient mariner is a poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and is his longest poem he ever wrote and in many people’s opinions, the best he ever wrote. The poem is famous for its religious symbols. Even the theme or moral of the story is that everyone should love god s creatures, no matter how uglyRead More Why is most of Coleridge’s best writing unfinished? Essay1930 Words   |  8 Pagesof Coleridge’s best writing unfinished? S. T. Coleridge is acknowledged by many as one of the leading poets and critics within the British Romantic movement. Famous for his philosophical approaches, Coleridge collaborated with other greats such as Southey and also Wordsworth, a union famous as being one of the most creatively significant relationships in English literature. Wordsworth’s lyrical style can be seen influencing many of Coleridges works, from Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ to theRead MoreWilliam Wordsworth And Coleridge Vs. Coleridge2220 Words   |  9 Pagespublication of Lyrical Ballads, which featured the poetry of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.   Wordsworth and Coleridge both had strong, and sometimes conflicting  opinions about what came with well-written poetry.   Their ideas were mainly about the creation of poetry and the role of poetry in the world. These major idea led to the creation of poetry that is complex to support a wide area of critical readings in a modern day. Wordsworth is famous for changing the diction thought acceptableRead MoreThe Glorious Faculty: a Critical Analysis of Addison’s Theory of Imagination in ‘the Pleasures of Imagination’2701 Words   |  11 PagesThe Glorious Faculty: A Critical Analysis of Addison’s Theory of Imagination in ‘The Pleasures of Imagination’ Declaration: I declare that this is my original work and I have acknowledged indebtedness to authors I have consulted in the preparation of my paper. (I) An auxilier light Came from my mind which on the setting sun Bestow’d new splendor †¦[1] - William Wordsworth (II) Ah ! from the soul itself must issue forth ARead MoreLiterary Analysis Of Samuel Taylor Coleridge3984 Words   |  16 PagesDan Paulos Mr. Kaplan English IV 10 November 2014 Literary Analysis of Samuel Taylor Coleridge Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an influential British philosopher, critic, and writer of the early eighteenth century. He was a prominent member of a literary group known as the â€Å"Lake Poets,† which included renowned writers like William Wordsworth and Robert Southey. His writings and philosophy greatly contributed to the formation and construction of modern thought. He possessed an extensive, creative imaginationRead More Ralph Waldo Emerson Essay1326 Words   |  6 PagesAfter a while, however, he discovered the writings of British poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, and used their works to shape his own. Emerson’s wife died in 1831, an event that likely pushed him towards a path of self-discovery. At the end of 1832, Emerson left for Europe. While there, he had the opportunity to meet some of his literary idols: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Thomas Carlyle. These relationships would continue to inspire EmersonRead More The Composition and Publication History of Samuel T. Coleridges Kubla Khan2601 Words   |  11 PagesThe Myth of Fragmentation - The Composition and Publication History of Samuel T. Coleridges Kubla Khan Although the exact date remains unknown, it is believed that Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote his poem Kubla Khan sometime in the fall of 1797 and began revisions of it in the early spring of 1798. Interestingly, although no original manuscript has been found, the Crewe Manuscript of Kubla Khan was discovered in 1934. Currently, the Crewe Manuscript is the earliest know version of Kubla Khan andRead More A Lacanian Study of Motherhood in the Poems of William Wordsworth1990 Words   |  8 Pages William Wordsworth was a prolific poet of the Romantic movement, perhaps best known for publishing Lyrical Ballads with friend and fellow poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1798. These poems were written in what Wordsworth described as a ‘common tongue’ with a focus on themes often found in Romantic poetry, such as the pastoral, the mythical, fragmentation, heroism and satire. In Lyrical Ballads one recurring subject almost unique to Wordsworth in its passion and persistence is that of motherhoodRead MoreKubla Khan Essay4320 Words   |  18 Pagesthen? (CN, iii 4287) Kubla Khan is a fascinating and exasperating poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (. Almost everyone who has read it, has been charmed by its magic. It must surely be true that no poem of comparable length in English or any other language has been the subject of so much critical commentary. Its fifty-four lines have spawned thousands of pages of discussion and analysis. Kubla Khan is the sole or a major subject in five book-length studies; close to 150 articles

Sunday, December 15, 2019

Effect Of Different Noise Reduction Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

Abstract-The intent of this paper is to measure the consequence of different noise decrease filters on computed imaging ( CT ) images. In peculiar, denoising filters based on the combination of Gaussian and Prewitt operators and on anisotropic diffusion are proposed. Simulation consequences show that the proposed techniques increase the image quality and let the usage of a low-dose CT protocol. We will write a custom essay sample on Effect Of Different Noise Reduction Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Index Terms-Computed imaging ( CT ) , denoising filters, image quality, radiation dosage Computed imaging ( CT ) is a wireless in writing review method that generates a 3-D image of the interior of an object from a big series of 2-D images taken on a cross-sectional plane of the same object. In most clinical conditions, CT has been necessary in adjunction to conventional skiagraphy. By and large talking, conventional radiogram depict a 3-D object as a 2-D image, produced by an X-ray tubing, which rotates around the organic structure of the stationary patient. of Hounsfield graduated tables that represents the country of involvement. The available grey graduated table is spread over the chosen scope. For this purpose, two parametric quantities are defined, i.e. , windowing breadth, which defines the difference between the upper and lower bounds of the selected scope, and windowing centre, which represents the centre of the window. After a cross-sectional image is acquired, the patient is advanced through the gauntry into the following stationary place, and so the followin g image is acquired. Improvement in tubing engineering, computing machine, and hardware public presentations has led to an development of CT scanners, cut downing the acquisition scan times and bettering the declaration. A first development of the traditional CT scanner is the coiling ( or helical ) scanner [ 1 ] . It is based on the uninterrupted patient gesture through the gauntry combined with the interrupted tubing rotary motion. The name of this scanner engineering derives from the coiling way traced out by the X-ray beam. The major advantages of coiling scanning compared with the traditional attack consist of its improved velocity and spacial declaration. To farther cut down the scan clip, the multislice CT scanner has been developed [ 2 ] . This system uses multiple rows of sensors. This manner, the throughput of the patient is well increased. However, multislice scanners generate an increased sum of informations compared with the single-slice scanner, and practically, the th roughput of patients is limited by the clip taken to retrace the acquired informations. In add-on, diagnostic CT imaging involves a trade-off between the image quality and the radiation dosage ; hence, the decrease of the CT image noise is important to cut down the acquisition clip without deteriorating the contrast and the signal-to noise ratio. The visual image of the anatomic constructions by agencies of CT is affected by two effects, viz. , blurring, which reduces the visibleness of little object, and noise, which reduces the visibleness of low-contrast objects. During scanning, the sum of blurring is determined by the focal topographic point size and the sensor size, whereas at the clip of image Reconstruction procedure, blurring is due to the voxel size and the type of applied filter. Another common process to scan the whole organic structure, giving 3-D images, is magnetic resonance imagination ( MRI ) , which is based on magnetic belongingss of the H content of tissues. The MRI scanner is a tubing surrounded by a elephantine round magnet. The patient is placed on a movable bed that is inserted into the strong magnet, which forces H atoms in the patient ‘s organic structure to aline in the magnetic field way. When wireless moving ridges are applied, they perturb the magnetisation equilibrium by tipping the magnetisation in different waies. As the RF moving ridges turn off, the H atoms lose energy breathing their ain RF signals. Different types of tissues generate different signals. The collected informations are reconstructed into a 2-D array. MRI is a noninvasive scrutiny because the patients are non exposed to the radiation dosage, MRI is good suited for soft tissues. MRI is more expensive than CT. II. RADIATION DOSE AND IMAGE QUALITY CT histories for 47 % of whole medical radiation, although it represents merely 7 % of entire radiology scrutinies. Hence, the development of techniques for cut downing the radiation dosage becomes indispensable, peculiarly in paediatric applications [ 3 ] . In conventional skiagraphy imagination, it is normally clear when overexposure has taken topographic point. This is non true in CT, because the sum of radiation adsorbed by the patient depends on many proficient parametric quantities, which can automatically be controlled by CT scanners to equilibrate the high image quality and the exposure dosage. Then, it is possible that the differences between an equal image and a high-quality image ( obtained with higher exposure ) are non so instantly apparent. Unfortunately, as the radiation additions, the associated hazard of malignant neoplastic disease is increased, although this is highly little. To adhere the image quality to the radiation dosage, a batch of dose forms were developed. The Computed Tomography Dose Index, along with its discrepancies, includes a set of standard parametric quantities used to depict CT-associated dosage. It is defined as the integral of the dose distribution profile ( measured along a line analogue to the axis of rotary motion of the lamp ) divided by the nominal piece thickness. Many proficient factors contribute to the strength dosage in CT. In sequence, the chief CT parametric quantities and their deductions in the diagnostic quality of the CT tests are investigated. 1 ) Tube current ( in factory amperes ) and gantry rotary motion clip: These parametric quantities are straight relative to the radiation dosage. Their merchandise ( in mAs ) affects the figure of photons emitted by the X-ray beam, and it is responsible for the radiation exposure. Furthermore, an addition in mill amperes produces warming of the anode of the X-ray tubing. 2 ) Tube electromotive force extremum ( kVp ) : It is relative to square root of the dosage. This parametric quantity controls the speed at which the negatrons collide with the anode, and it straight affects X-ray incursion. Furthermore, by utilizing high values of kVp, it is possible to cut down the difference in tissue densenesss, and this can degrade the image contrast. 3 ) Pitch: It is defined as the ratio of the table distance traveled in one 360a- ¦ rotary motion and the entire collimated breadth of the X-ray beam. A rise in pitch produces a decrease of the radiation dosage but, at the same clip, decreases both the piece sensitiveness and the z-axis declaration. Many CT empirical protocols to set scan scenes have been proposed [ 5 ] . Generally, in CT scrutinies, a high radiation dosage consequences in high-quality images. A lower dose leads to the addition in image noise and consequences in un crisp images. This is more critical in low-contrast soft-tissue imagination like abdominal or liver CT. The relationship between the image quality and the dosage in CT is comparatively complex, affecting the interplay of a figure of factors, including noise, axial and longitudinal declarations, and piece width [ 6 ] . Depending on the diagnostic undertaking, these factors interact to find image sensitiveness ( i.e. , the ability to comprehend low-contras t constructions ) and visibleness of inside informations III. CT IMAGE NOISE CT images are per se noisy, and this poses important challenges for image reading, peculiarly in the context of low-dose and high-throughput informations analysis. CT noise affects the visibleness of low-contrast objects. By utilizing well-engineered CT scanners, it is sensible to pretermit the electronic noise caused by electronic devices [ 7 ] . Then, in the CT image, the primary subscriber to the entire noise is the quantum noise, which represents the random fluctuation in the fading coefficients of the single tissue voxels [ 8 ] . In fact, it is possible that two voxels of the same tissue produce different CT values. A possible attack to cut down the noise is the usage of big voxels, which absorb a batch of photons, guaranting a more accurate measuring of the fading coefficients. In this paper, some image filters to cut down the noise part were proposed. In a first measure, the statistical belongingss of image noise in CT tests were investigated. As evident in the literature, noi se mold and the manner to cut down it are common jobs in most imaging applications. In many image processing applications, a suited denoising stage is frequently required before any relevant information could be extracted from analyzed images. This is peculiarly necessary when few images are available for analysis. A batch of surveies have proved the Gaussianity of the pixel image generated by CT scanners [ 9 ] – [ 10 ] . This consequence permits us to set up the stochastic image theoretical account and to carry on a statistical image analysis of CT images IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this paper, 20 high-dose thorax CT images supplied by the Radiologist staff of â€Å" G. Moscati † Taranto Hospital have been examined. In peculiar, our attending was pointed to chest scrutinies due to high frequence by radiotherapists look intoing chest pathology, every bit good as the good handiness of this type of images. In fact, in the thorax, CT is by and large better than medical imaging analysis such as MRI for the hollow entrails. Furthermore, lung is the lone organ whose vass can be traced without utilizing contrast media, and this simplifies the image amplification. All images ( 512 A- 512 pels ) were in Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine format, which represents the criterion in radiology and cardiology imagination industry for informations exchange and image-related information. This standard groups information into information sets, including of import features such as image size and format, acquisition parametric quantities, equipment description, and patient information [ 16 ] . The examined images were acquired by agencies of a coiling CT scanner with the undermentioned acquisition puting: the tubing electromotive force extremum is 120 kVp, the tubing current is 375 ma, and the piece thickness is 7.5 millimeter. Image visual image was performed by utilizing the criterion windowing parametric quantities for thorax CT, i.e. , windowing centre of 30 HU and windowing breadth of 350 HU. Each image was corrupted by linear zero-mean white Gaussian noise to imitate a low-dose CT image. To this purpose, we have simulated the decrease in the tubing current degree by following an sum of noise in understanding with the consequences of old surveies about simulation of dose decrease in CT scrutinies [ 11 ] . To be more precise, we have used a degree noise ( standard divergence = 25 HU ) that about simulates the lowest tubing current degree ( 40 ma ) adopted in CT analysis. This value corresponds to the current degree recommended for paediatric thorax CT scrutinies [ 12 ] . Fig. 1 shows an illustration of an original high-dose thorax image. ] . To cut down the noise consequence, different low-pass filters have mostly been used in medical image analysis, but they have the disadvantage to present film overing borders. In fact, all smoothing filters, while smoothing out the noise, besides take high frequence border characteristics by degrading the localisation and the contrast. Therefore, it is necessary to equilibrate the tradeoff among Fig. 1Original CT image obtained with a high dosage of radiation. noise suppression, image deblurring, and edge sensing. To this purpose, a low-pass filter combined with an border sensor operator was proposed. In peculiar, Gaussian, averaging, and unsharp filters were tested to smooth the noise, whereas Prewitt and Sobel operators were used for border designation. The experimental consequences showed that the combination of Gaussian and Prewitt offers best public presentations. Successively, a nonlinear denoising technique has been tested, and its public presentations have been compared with the Gaussian-Prewitt filtering technique. Anisotropic diffusion is a selective and nonlinear filtering technique that improves image quality, taking the noise while continuing and even heightening inside informations. The anisotropic diffusion procedure employs the diffusion coefficients to find the sum of smoothing that should be applied to each pel of the image. The diffusion procedure is based on an iterative method, and it is described by agencies of the un dermentioned diffusion equation where Iti, J is the strength of the pel at place I, J and at the tth loop ; cN, cesium, cerium, and cW are the diffusion coefficients in the four waies ( north, south, east, and west ) ; parametersa?†¡NI, a?†¡SI, a?†¡EI, and a? »a?†¡WI are the nearest-neighbor differences of strength in the four waies ; and I » represents a coefficient that assures the stableness of the theoretical account, runing in the interval [ 0-0.25 ] . The initial status ( t = 0 ) of the diffusion equation is the strength pels of the original image. The diffusion coefficients are updated at every loop as a map of strength gradient. Normally, the two following maps were used for coefficient computation [ 21 ] : ( 2 ) where K is a control parametric quantity. The first map favours high-contrast borders over low contrast borders, whereas the 2nd emphasizes broad countries over smaller countries. A proper pick of the diffusion map non merely preserves but besides enhances the borders. This map monotonically decreases with the addition in gradient strength a?†¡I. The control parametric quantity should be chosen to bring forth maximal smoothing, where noise is supposed to be present at that place forward, it is possible to cipher K to happen the maximal value of diffusion flow ( hundred a? » a?†¡I ) and take it to be equal to the noise degree. This manner, the undermentioned K values are obtained for two diffusion maps ( 2 ) [ 23 ] : ( 3 ) where I?n is the standard divergence of the noise calculated in the noisy image background. The appraisal of the noise degree in a corrupted image is usually based on the computation of the standard divergence of the pels in the homogenous zone ( e.g. , background ) . For this ground, the pel indexes of the original image background, matching to the zones where there is no signal ( Ii, ,j = 0 ) , have been calculated. Then, these indexes are used to cipher the standard divergence in the noisy image. In the first estimate, we have supposed that the noise criterion divergence is changeless throughout the image. Therefore, to take into history the non stationarity of noise, we have calculated the K value as a map of local noise features. The noise is assumed to be statistically independent of the original image. We consider the differences in strength in the four waies, i.e. , ( 4 ) It is good known that the noise discrepancy of the amount of two independent noisy signals is the amount of the noise discrepancies of the two constituents. Therefore, it can easy be shown that the discrepancy of the noise is non affected by the operations in ( 4 ) , because the noise is assumed to be a white signal, i.e. , different pels are non correlated. Then, the noise discrepancies of I, DN, DS, DE, andDW are the same. To gauge the local noise criterion divergence, we consider a sub image of size M ( M = 2m + 1 ) , where the undermentioned relationship is applied: ( 5 ) It is possible to observe that the local mean I?D, I, ,j is taken into history. In fact, even if the planetary noise mean is zero, locally, the mean is normally nonzero. The estimated local criterion divergence is replaced in ( 3 ) , obtaining four K values for each diffusion map. The diffusion equation does non take into history the border waies. In fact, they are considered ever vertically or horizontally displayed. It is possible to better the public presentation of the diffusion filter by increasing the action of the filter on the waies parallel to the border and diminishing the filtrating action on perpendicular waies. To this purpose, is modified by adding new footings depending on the border way [ 12 ] , A suited mask of size N is used to pull out a sub image, and the upper limit of the strength gradient is calculated to happen the border way. The size N depends on the image belongingss. If N is excessively little, the figure of mask pels is non sufficient to verify if an border issues and to cipher its orientation. If N is excessively big, it is possible to pull out a sub array incorporating more than one border orientation ; in this instance, the computation of the maximal strength gradient produces wrong consequences. V. RESULTS To measure the consequence of noise add-on on the original images, the comparative RMS mistake eRMS was calculated as follows: ( 7 ) Fig 5 ( a ) loop 0 image where Io is the original high-dose image, I is the original image corrupted by Gaussian noise, and R and C are the row and column Numberss, severally. Experimental consequences have shown that this parametric quantity is, on Fig 5 ( B ) Iteration 1 image Fig 5 ( degree Celsius ) Iteration 2image Fig 5 ( vitamin D ) enhanced image loop mean, approximately 13 % .Successively, ( 7 ) was used to cipher the noise decrease obtained by using the proposed filtering techniques on the corrupted image. In this instance, in ( 7 ) , I represents the filtered noisy image. In a first measure, the filter obtained by uniting Gaussian and Prewitt filters was tested. This technique allows diminishing the mean comparative mistake to 10 % . Successively, the anisotropic filter was tested. Several simulations have been used to put up the filter parametric quantities. In peculiar, a first set of trials has been carried out to compare the public presentations of the filter obtained by ciphering the diffusion coefficients by agencies of the two maps ( 2 ) . The trial consequences show that the 2nd map produces somewhat better public presentations in footings of comparative RMS mistake. Probably, this is due to the belongingss of chest CT images, where the big parts are prevailing with regard to the countries with high contrast borders. Further simulations have been performed to place the figure of loops for the diffusion procedure. Fig. 5 ( a-c ) shows the average values of comparative RMS mistakes obtained in all filtering image trials versus the loop figure. It is possible to observe that, for an loop figure less than 4, eRMS monotonically decreases ; otherwise, eRMS monotonically grows. Therefore, three loops have been used in the filtering trials. Furthermore, several simulations have been performed to find the size of the two masks used to gauge the local noise criterion divergence and border waies, severally. The analysis of trial consequences has led to take a size M = N = 7 for both masks. Finally, the public presentations of the Gaussian-Prewitt and anisotropic filters have been compared. The experimental consequences highlight that, utilizing the anisotropic filter, it is possible to diminish eRMS to about 6 % . Fig. 5. ( vitamin D ) shows an illustration of the public presentation of anisotropic filtering and of filtrating obtained by uniting Gauss and Prewitt operators applied on a noisy image VI. Decision In this paper, an analysis of denoising techniques applied to CT images has been presented with the purpose of increasing the dependability of CT scrutinies obtained with low-dose radiation. First, the chief proficient parametric quantities act uponing the radiation dosage and their deductions for diagnostic quality were investigated. Successively, the chief causes of CT noise and its statistical belongingss were analyzed. Finally, some image filters to cut down the noise part were proposed. In peculiar, a combination of Gaussian and Prewitt filters was ab initio tested, obtaining a RMS of 10 % . Successively, a filtering technique based on anisotropic diffusion was applied. Several simulations have been carried out to take the best filter parametric quantities. This manner, it has been possible to diminish the comparative mistake to about 6 % . How to cite Effect Of Different Noise Reduction Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Saturday, December 7, 2019

Us Recession free essay sample

Since the start of the recession, the United States has tried to regain stability in its economy, and implement fiscal and monetary polices to prevent future crisis. One of the indictors of a recession is the unemployment rate. The most recent recession was preceded by a time of steady economic growth, which was accompanied by employment growth. Prerecession unemployment rate hovered around 4-5%, which is historically and relatively low. Job growth was concentrated in three areas: education, health-care and housing related job. While education and health-care have been on a steady incline for years, the then booming housing market created most of the jobs in the housing industries. In December 2007, at the start of the recession the unemployment remained around 5 percent. By the end of the recession in 2009, that number had climbed to 9. 5% and some states 10%. In September 2008, the economic downturn intensified when the economy was jolted by trouble in the nations finical system. We will write a custom essay sample on Us Recession or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the aftermath of the turmoil, credit market constricted and banks tightened lending standers. The recession rapidly deepened and job losses spiked. The monthly job loses averaged 712,00 from October 2008 through March 2008. Historically, good producing industries experienced the largest decline in employment during a recession. The most recent recession followed suit, as manufacturing and constriction where of the hardest hit industries. The recession led not only to employment losses, but also cuts in workers hours. Despite the improvements in 2010, employment remains 7. 7 million jobs below prerecession mark. In the U. S. GDP fell in the fourth quarter of 2008, by 6. % annual rate, with declines heaviest in business investment, exports, finance, autos, housing, construction, and retail sales. American business slashed capital investment at an annual rate of -38%. Investment in software and computer equipment declined by 33. 8%, and investment in new buildings was down 44. 2%. Total investment expenditure is in free fall as of the first quarter of 2009, dropping by roughly 5 0%. While consumer spending doesn’t usually precipitate a recession, since it represents seventy percent of total spending, and spending drives the economy in the short term, consumption plays a key role in the duration of recessions. Total Personal Consumption Expenditures began falling in the third quarter of 2008 with a -3. 8% change which worsened to a -4. 3% change in the fourth quarter. Looking at the components of consumption reveals that the majority of the decline occurred in durable goods which turned negative in the first quarter of 2008 and snowballed to -22. 1% in the fourth quarter of 2008. The decline in durable goods likely coincides with the slide in spending on houses. When people stop buying new homes, they also spend less on appliances, home furnishings, etc. Non-durable Consumption has also declined beginning in the third quarter of 2008 with a -7. % change and continuing into the fourth quarter at -9. 4%. Non-durable consumption is largely a function of income. As GDP declined beginning in the third quarter of 2008, personal disposable income fell sharply, bringing down non durable consumption for the next several quarters. The final component of consumption, Services, while dipping slightly negative in the third quarter of 2008 at -0. 1% turned positive again in the fourth quarter of 2008 resting at 1. 5%. Even a small negative decline in services is a matter of concern as this area of consumption is generally the most resilient to economic downturns. One hopeful sign of recovery is that in the first quarter 2009, total consumer spending increased, driven in large part by 9. 6% growth in consumer durable spending. Despite the severe decline in the housing market, the US economy was kept afloat for nearly three years by growth in exports. During the period from the fourth quarter of 2005 to the second quarter of 2008, export growth averaged nearly 10% at an annualized rate. It was this growth that gave hope during late 2007 and early 2008 that the economy might yet dodge a recession. However as the recession became a global phenomenon, the world demand for American exports waned. In the third quarter of 2008, export growth slowed before dropping 23. 6% in the fourth quarter. This drop accelerated in the first quarter of 2008, with another 28. 7% decrease. US government spending has not played a large role in the current recession to date. State amp; local spending has declined as expected, likely a by-product of weakening tax revenues, especially in states that must keep a balanced budget. The net effect has been modest with total government spending growth averaging 2. 7%. A substantial decline in federal defense spending in the first quarter of 2009 caused a noticeable 3. 5% decline in total government spending.