Climate Change And Creating Climate Refugees Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate Change And Creating Climate Refugees Environmental Sciences Essay Introduction 1.1 Background The world is undergoing a broad set of global changes, like changes in population density, climate, resource use, land use, biodiversity, and urbanization and globalization processes. Climate change is one of the drivers of global change, which has over the years been received strong focus by scientists, policy-makers and leaders of the world (Vitousek, 1994). At present climate change is considered as emerging global threat that not only induces physical environmental impacts but also affects the social structures, economic factors and the overall development process (Birkmann, 2010). This emerging threat has introduced a new social community named Climate Refugee especially for the affected developing nations. The UN currently states that more refugees are displaced by environmental catastrophes than wars, and the number of the climate refugee is more than 25 million which is likely to become 50 million in coming decades (Meyers, 2002). Out of those 25 million people about 10 milli on are from Africa who are directly affected by the climate change via droughts. The second largest group is from coastal areas of Asian countries, who are affected by natural disasters like cyclones, storm surges, floods, salinity and droughts (Anon, 2010). The cumulative effects of climate change exacerbate food and water insecurity, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem, environmental degradation and human insecurity through social conflict, political conflict and violence in the affected developing countries (Adger and Kelly, 1999). Hence, the socioeconomic structures are undermined in these countries where the affected people are compelled to switch over occupations for livelihood. These are the people who can no longer ensure a secured livelihood in their origin of dwelling (Mayers, 2002). Together with climate change effects, population pressure problem and hardcore poverty have induced a notable change in the whole economic structure of these countries. As a result, these countries are suffered from chronic socio-economic inequality and social instability (Barnett, 2007). Bangladesh often makes top news all over the world. However, unlike most other countries, it is not because of politics but for devastating natural catastrophes causing huge death tolls and massive destruction. This South Asian LDC, since her independence in 1971, has been struggling with a number of socioeconomic and socio-political problems such as- rapid population growth, poverty, illiteracy, gender disparity, slow economic growth, institutional inertia, political instability, violence and so on. But from last two decades she started struggling with a new problem- the adverse effects of climate change in the form of natural disasters (Miliband, 2009). Over the last two decades these disasters have become regular phenomena contributed miserable suffering to millions of inhabitants who are vulnerable to the climatic shocks (GoB, 2005). In other words, climate risk for Bangladesh is relatively higher than most other countries of the world. The Global Climate Risk Index prepared by G ermanwatch shows that Bangladesh is at top of the ranking of most affected countries by climatic extreme events over the last two decades. Table 1.1 shows the overall ranking made by Germanwatch. Table 1.1 Long term Climate Risk Index (CRI) for most affected countries for period 1990-2008 CRI 1990-2008 Country CRI Score Death toll* Deaths/thousand* Total looses in million US$ PPP* Losses per GDP in %* 1 Bangladesh 8.00 8,241 6.27 2,189 1.81 2 Myanmar 8.25 4,522 9.60 707 2.55 3 Honduras 12.00 340 5.56 660 3.37 4 Vietnam 18.83 466 0.64 1,525 1.31 5 Nicaragua 21.00 164 3.37 211 2.03 6 Haiti 22.83 335 4.58 95 1.08 7 India 25.83 3,255 0.33 6,132 0.38 8 Dominican Republic 27.58 222 2.93 191 0.45 9 Philippines 27.67 799 1.11 544 0.30 10 China 28.58 2,023 0.17 25,961 0.78 * Annual Source: Germanwatch, 2010 that the most common disasters are flood and cyclone. Recent IPCC assessment reports (TAR, 2001 and AR4, 2007) also reveal that over the last two decades both of the above-mentioned disaster-events have become more frequent and devastating for Bangladesh. It is learnt from IPCC reports that 5-10% increase in wind speed is very likOn basis of above-mentioned table, it is easy to apprehend why Bangladesh was cited numerous occasions in COP15 held in Copenhagen in 2009. At present this country is more likely to exposed towards climatic extreme events than most of the countries in the world (UNFCCC, 2009). These events, in form of natural disasters range from ravaging cyclones to devastating floods (Muhammad, 2007). Following Table 1.2 provides an overall idea on most devastating disasters occurred in Bangladesh since early twentieth century. This table shows Table 1.2 Disaster-log in Bangladesh since early 1900s Disasters Time Disasters Time Epidemic 1918 Cyclone 24-5-1985 Drought 1943 Flood 22-7-1987 Cyclone October 1942 Flood August 1987 Cyclone 28-5-1963 Flood June 1988 Cyclone May 1965 Cyclone 29-4-1991 Cyclone June 1965 Cyclone 15-5-1995 Flood July 1968 Flood 5-7-1998 Cyclone 12-11-1970 Flood September 2000 Flood July 1974 Flood 20-6-2004 Drought July 1983 Cyclone 15-11-2007 Flood May 1984 Cyclone 27-05-2009 Source: EMDAT likely during the cyclone-season in Bangladesh that would eventually enhance storm surge and coastal flooding, while 10-20% increases of wind intensity can cause floods both in coast and inlands as the cyclone makes land fall (Agarwala, 2003). It has been assessed that an increase of 2 ° C temperature and a 0.3 m sea level rise would cause a cyclone in the costal belt of Bangladesh as strong as cyclone of 1991; furthermore, such a cyclone is likely to result in a 1.5 m higher storm surge that may inundate 20% more land than 1991 cyclone (Ali, 1996). The most recent example of costal cyclone as possible effect of climate change is SIDR which battered the coastal belt in Bangladesh on 15th November 2007. The wind speed was about 220 to 240 km/hour and at least 3,113 people were known dead and more than 10,000 were missing; the damage due to this disaster had been around US$ 2.3 million (EMDAT, 2009). The intensity of SIDR was not less than the 1991 cyclone in some part of the coastal areas and the impact was even more than that. Furthermore, on 27th May 2009, another devastating cyclone named AILA hit the South-western part of Bangladesh and West Bengal of India, which exacerbated the suffering for the affected people in Bangladesh; although an early warning system enabled the evacuation of an estimated 2.7 million people to higher ground and cyclone shelter-houses (BBC, 2009). It is predicted that a single meter rise of sea level would inundate more than 18% of the coastal belt and will affect 11% of the total countrys population. Two-third of the whole country is only 10 m above the sea level; therefore, about 13 million of the total population may likely to be homeless and become environmental refugees as the victim of climate changing process (Huq et al, 1999). Khulna and Barisal, the costal divisions of Bangladesh are relatively disaster-prone, where about 3.2 million people are at risk and about one-eighth of the countrys agricultural lands and more than 8,000 communication networks are likely to be affected due to climate change effects (Parvin, 2010). 1.2 Statement of the problem About one third of the territory of Bangladesh is delimited as coastal areas which are combined of distinctive opportunities, diversified threats and vulnerabilities (HarunOrRashid, 2009). It is because coastal areas possess different geo-physical and environmental characteristics that distinguish the coastal zone from rest of the country. These distinctive characteristics are interplay of tidal regime, salinity in soil and water, cyclone and storm surge; with economic and social implications on the population (PDO-ICZMP, 2003). Hence, such identical geo-physical pattern has introduced a completely different livelihood pattern, where people are involved with selected coastal economic activities like fishing, salt production, fry collection from the sea and resource collection from the adjacent mangrove forest (Ahmed, 2003, Islam, 2004). Although the coastal areas are much more fertile land for agricultural production, these areas are relatively income-poor compared to the rest of the country. Average per capita GDP (at current market price) in the coastal zone was US$ 402 in 2008, compared to US$ 621 for the whole country on average (GoB, 2009; CDP, 2009). There are ten different ethnic communities living in the coastal zones and they have complete different cultures and livelihood patterns. Along with the nontribal people, those ethnic communities completely depend on the coastal natural resources for their livelihood (Kamal, 2001). Their despair and dream, plight and struggle, vulnerability and resilience are uniquely revolved round in an intricate ecological and social setting which make their livelihoods distinctive from other parts of the country to a considerable extent. The Government of Bangladesh has already recognized coastal zone as areas of enormous potentials. In contrast, these areas are lagging behind in socio-economic development and vulnerable to different natural disasters and environmental degradation (Sevaraju, 2006). For a LDC like Bangladesh where the climate change takes a shape of natural disaster not only affects the socio-economic condition of coastal communities but also hinders obtaining an optimal GDP growth (ADPC, 2007). Climate change poses a significant threat for Bangladesh, particularly the projected climate change effects include sea level rise, higher temperature, enhanced monsoon precipitation and run-off, potentially reduced dry season precipitation and increase in cyclone intensity in this region (Agrawala, 2003). Those threats would induce serious impediments to the socioeconomic development of Bangladesh including coastal areas. A subjective ranking of key climate change effects for coastal Bangladesh identifies cyc lone and sea level rise as being of the highest priority in terms of severity, certainty and urgency of impact (Parvin, 2009). National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) and other scholars have identified the coastal areas of Bangladesh as one of the most affected areas in the world due to the threats of climate change effects (GoB 2005). In the southwestern part of Bangladesh the physical isolation of coastal communities makes them highly resource-dependent available around the coast and adjacent mangrove forest (the Sundarbans), which reduces their opportunities to access to alternative livelihoods indeed. These hindrances make the coastal communities vulnerable to any disruption, especially to natural catestrophes. As a result, households in coastal communities suffer from imbalance of social and economic powers, lack of participation in decision-making, limited or zero asset ownership, and laws and regulations influencing peoples ability to use assets or access to resources (Pomeroy et al., 2006). 1.3 Justification of the study There are only a few number of studies have been conducted on coastal Bangladesh. These studies are mainly conducted on hazard warning and evacuation system (Paul and Dutt, 2010), health security due to disaster (Ray-Bennet et al., 2010), physical injuries during cyclones (Paul, 2009), and coastal hazards and community-coping method (Parvin, 2009). So, most of these studies focused on the coping and adaptation mechanisms in coastal areas. However, we hardly find any study that addressed the socioeconomic vulnerability in local level of coastal zone, especially in the southwestern part of Bangladesh. Hence, without identifying local-level vulnerability pattern the suggested coping or adaptation mechanism is likely to be least effective in reality. In this study we attempt to fill up the knowledge gap by identifying quantitative local-level vulnerability at first; then we try to look for optimal adaptation options based on empirical relationship between vulnerability and important soci oeconomic parameters. We selected Koyra upazila  [1]  as our study area, which one of the most disaster-prone areas in southwestern coastal zone of Bangladesh. 1.4 Research questions and objectives of the study Considering all the above-mentioned facts, we proceed with the discovery of logical answers of following research questions; What is the symptom of climate change in the study area? Which major climatic factors constitute for climate change here? Which factors exacerbate such vulnerability? Is there any single factor or multiple factors? What is the nature and magnitude of relationship between this vulnerability and socioeconomic factors in the study area? What are the possible adaptation options in terms of capacity for the vulnerable households in study area? The above-mentioned research questions are addressed by the study objectives. Hence, the main study objectives are; To understand and figure out the manifestation of climate change in the study area, To quantify socioeconomic vulnerability and assess the nature and magnitude of the relationship between vulnerability and major socioeconomic parameters of the study area, and To identify and recommend the optimal adaptation options in terms of capacity of households in the study area while addressing socioeconomic vulnerability. 1.5 Outline of this study This study consists of nine chapters. Let us have a glimpse at the brief contents of all the chapters chronologically. Chapter one is introduction. It provides an overall scenario on Bangladeshs status in relations with climate change effects. We briefly discuss about the problem statement and then we identify the possible knowledge gap of socioeconomic vulnerability in the study area. We conclude this chapter by mentioning a number of research questions, which are addressed by three main objectives of this study. In Chapter two we focus on the theoretical background and theoretical framework for this study. Under theoretical background we mention and briefly discuss relevant literatures in accordance with our study objectives. Then we depict the theoretical framework for this study, which is used for quantifying socioeconomic vulnerability of the study area. We mention about the methodology of this study in Chapter three. In this chapter we focus on types of research that we have adopted in this study. Then in accordance with study objectives we mention associated data type, collection techniques and data sources. We also mention the sampling method and sampling size. The construction of vulnerability index is discussed in this chapter. Finally we conclude by mentioning the impediments those we faced while accomplishing this study. Chapter four deals with the description of study area Koyra. We mention important information about geographical location, administration, topographic, physiographic and socioeconomic condition. We include a Disaster Calendar for our study area that we made by collecting information from households. Chapter five deals with identification of climate change effects and quantification of socioeconomic vulnerability at local level of study area. In this we show possible climate change effects in the study area based on empirical data and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) findings. Later we quantify vulnerability for each union  [2]  by applying the Vulnerability Index. We show union-wise vulnerability with the help of maps. Once we have quantified vulnerability, we conduct a number of econometric analyses in Chapter six in order to show relationship between vulnerability and important socioeconomic parameters of study area. We mention the major findings from analyses in two different tables. We also put brief explanation of models and variables used in this study. In Chapter seven we discuss the major findings obtained from model analyses in elaborated way. Here we also mention the possible reasons behind the nature and extent of relationship between vulnerability and socioeconomic parameters of study area. At the end of this chapter we check the consistency of vulnerability index by applying an alternative approach. Subsequent regression coefficients of alternative approach are also tested and compared with the old model results. Based on the results of relationship mentioned in chapter six and seven; we recommend the optimal adaptation options for the affected people through brief description in Chapter eight. We also draw few of our recommendations on basis of correlation between different variables. The existing adaptation options in study area are also mentioned in Chapter eight. We conclude this study in Chapter nine. We summarize major findings from this study in a nut shell. Besides, we focus on shortcomings of the approach we used to quantify vulnerability. In fine we mention the issues that we did not address in this study where further research can be conducted.

Importance of Accountability Essay

â€Å"Accountability encompasses the procedures and processes by which one party justifies and takes responsibility for its activities such as for achieving various organizational goals† (Lippincott Nursing Center, 2009). When a patient goes enters an office, they have already set their standards and expectations to the highest standards. From the first hello to the introduction to their provider, every action is being measured. The employees will be held accountable if the patient isn’t checked in a timely manner; their insurance information is not entered quickly or accurately. The medical assistant has to have their patients roomed in a timely manner, check vitals and enter vitals and record medications correctly. If any of these steps are not completed appropriately, that individual will be held accountable. Accountability is an anchor in any business, but it is crucial to the healthcare industry. In this paper I will identify what it means to be held accountable an d tools to measure accountability. Why is accountability important in the health care industry. Patients rely on the accountability and knowledge of their providers. This attribute is important because their health is in the hands of these individuals. This responsibility does not stop with the providers, but it is also relevant for other staff members involved in the care of the patients. Patients expect their care to be handled appropriately and efficiently. In order for the system to work accordingly, employees need to be held accountable for their actions. If employees are not consistently doing what it takes to provide excellent customer service, accountability is not being enforced, and employees create risk for the company. By not following through on task or responsibilities patients begin to question the credibility of the company, and they begin to want someone to be held accountable for the deficiencies  that have occurred. How is an employee’s accountability measured in the health care industry. As a leader, my accountability is measured by the outcome of my staff and the productivity of my staff. Standards that are measured may be, are my patients being roomed in a timely manner, are there mistakes being made by my front office when entering information. Are my providers up to date on their requirements such as CMEs (continued medical education)? Are my OSHA and HIPAA manuals current? Do I have a fire escape plan posted and did we practice drills? Are charges being entered in a timely manner? These are certain aspects of my job that are tangible and some that are intangible that assessed and that I will be held accountable for if they do not meet the set standard. Staff accountability is measured through observation and yearly reviews, unless action is required sooner such corrective action measures. Patients also have the opportunity to send feedback through patient surveys and direct contact the leadership team. Applying ethical considerations in leadership and management. Ethics plays a large role in the different facets of healthcare. By not practicing ethical behavior, this creates room for error in the workplace. By teaching ethical behavior and exemplifying it as a leader you’re giving your employees the necessary tools to practice accountability and reliability. By incorporating this practice into the culture of your office, this leads to productivity and equips your staff to stand by behind their actions because they believe in them. By establishing this culture, it paves the path for accountable behavior. â€Å"Culture change requires committed leadership. Inadequate or inappropriate leadership has been identified as a key factor when attempts to change culture fail† (Lippincott Nursing Center, 2009). Checks and Balances in a successful organization. In a successful organization, checks and balances are created and implemented to ensure that the company’s success continues. Without checks and balances, the company is unable to quantify or identify the origin of its problems or how to go about correcting the situation. Without checks and balances, this leaves room for errors, which may lead to lawsuits or sick patients. For example by not providing your staff with mandated cleaning schedules, you are susceptible to infections among your patients. By requiring logs and assignments, you can then hold someone accountable if such tasks have not  been completed. By identifying what process is needed and the specific outcome, employees tend to be compliant and complete their expected work. By knowing the consequences of not completing their work, they are made aware that they will be held accountable and in what way. How does accountability affect an organization’s working culture? â€Å"Health care providers are constantly striving to improve quality and efficiency by using performance management systems and quality improvement initiatives. Creating and maintaining a culture of accountability are essential for achieving this end because accountability is the reason for measuring and improving performance† (Lippincott Nursing Center, 2009). How can you maintain a positive working culture and avoid a working culture of blame. In a leadership role, it is important to be the example of what you want within your organization. By doing so, you are developing a culture of respect without direct blame. Teach your staff how to identify the problem, how to avoid it and more importantly not to place blame. A responsible staff member will acknowledge their mistakes and make the effort to correct them. This attitude decreases the culture of blame. For example, my staff member made a mistake, and instead of pulling her into my office and placing all the blame on her my first question is â€Å"Why are you in here?† By approaching mistakes this way, you are putting the control back into the hands of the employee/staff member. This provides the opportunity to dissect their behavior and tell me why it occurred. In the end, there is no blame, but questions, which lead to answers, that result in the process of avoiding the same mistake. This approach negates cultural blame. In conclusion, accountability is a very productive tool in healthcare. By providing expectations for your employees they understand why and what it means to be accountable. In leadership exemplify what it means to hold yourself accountable and mirror that image for your employees. Patients depend on a culture that practices accountability and also believes in it. Commit to a set of standards, believe in them and practice those beliefs. References: Lippincott Nursing Center. (2009, April). Creating a Culture of Accountability in Health Care. Retrieved from http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/static?pageid=935642 NY Times – Freudenheim. (1991, February 19). Business and Health – Accountability In Health Care – NYTimes.com. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/19/business/business-and-health-accountability-in-health-care.html

Analysis Of The PoemThe Theft Outright, By Heid E....

The poem, â€Å"The Theft Outright† by Heid E. Erdrich, a Native American poet, refutes claims made in another poem, â€Å"The Gift Outright† by Robert Frost, that America was empty before the colonists. In his poem, Frost claims that America was â€Å"unstoried, artless, [and] unenhanced,†(Frost 15) demonstrating blatant racism by erasing the entire Native American culture and race from American history. Erdrich counters his beliefs by citing the colorful, full lives of Indians in the past and now, directly juxtaposing his work by saying that the Americas are â€Å"still storied, art-filled, [and] fully enhanced†(Erdrich 30) because of the Native Americans that lived there then and now. Similarly, the book â€Å"The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian† by†¦show more content†¦This draws a connection to the erasure of Native American culture in history, they are seen as rare and different from the ordinary, and for some people their existence is completely forgotten or denied. His own comments of not belonging at a white school, because of his nationality and family history further show the division of race that he can see at Reardan. Junior’s cursing accentuates how frustrated and pathetic he feels, viewed as less than everyone at his school, and constantly rejected and isolated by his white peers. The negative, demeaning mindset of those white kids is that Native Americans do not deserve anything from white people, not their time, attention, care, or even a proficient education. According to Jens Manuel Krogstad at Pew Research Center, Native Americans have the second highest high school dropout rate- eleven percent. This is very high, especially when compared to the white or Asian dropout rates- five and three percent, respectively. Additionally, it says Native Americans have the second lowest percentage of bachelor’s degrees, only seventeen percent, compared to the two highest, white and Asia n, at thirty three and fifty percent (Krogstad). Many Native Americans today are not allowed a chance at education because of poverty at reservations, and lousy, penniless schools. These issues are not thought about or spoken of often, because they are simply not

Critical appraisal statistical inference - article by Tamir (1988) - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2357 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Sociology Essay Type Critical essay Level High school Did you like this example? Critical appraisal statistical inference article by Tamir (1988) Write a critical appraisal of the authors use of statistical inference and more general issues of presentation in the article by Tamir (1988). Introduction Academic achievement throughout school has a major impact on the opportunities which are available to individuals with regards to further education and once they leave the educational system. Improving levels of educational attainment in the UK is a consistent component of government agenda, with a particular focus on lessening inequalities across the population (Cassen Kingdon, 2007, online). Understanding factors which influence academic achievement is therefore clearly important in the design of effective educational policy. It has been relatively well established that there are gender differences in general educational attainment. Although this is less marked in the UK than in many other countries, it is a general trend across Europe and internationally (Buchmann et al., 2008, p. 319; Eurydice, 2009, p. 74). There have been numerous studies which have sought to understand whether these differences apply within specific subjects. One example of such a study was conduct ed by Tamir et al. (1988, p. 128), and aimed to investigate whether there were differences in achievement and experiences between boys and girls in high school science. This essay presents a critical analysis of the study with regards to the statistical analysis performed and the conclusions inferred. The first section presents a brief overview of the study, followed by a more in-depth discussion of the statistical inference used. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Critical appraisal statistical inference article by Tamir (1988)" essay for you Create order Study Overview The study sought to evaluate gender differences in science achievement and attitudes towards science among Israeli 12th grade students. The sample included both those majoring in science, be that physics, chemistry or biology, and those not majoring in science. Data was collected using both surveys and objective testing instruments. Overall, there were 10 different dimensions of high school science experiences which were investigated within the study including achievement, attitudes towards science both for their own personal use and for society, preferences with regards to science and learning, and their learning and study experiences. Socioeconomic status was also considered as an additional explanatory variable. The authors concluded on the basis of their study that physics was predominantly chosen by boys while biology was chosen by more girls. The study also indicated that boys had a preference towards science subjects, had more positive attitudes towards science, viewed themselves as higher achievers in this area, and were more inclined towards scientific careers. The study also indicated that boys were higher achievers in physics and earth sciences than girls and that non-science majors were relatively scientifically illiterate. Academic Achievement All participants were administered a general science test. Those studying one of the three individual majors were also administered a separate test based on this major. In addition, understanding of science was measured using the 20-item Understanding of Science Measure (SUM). The use of objective testing is important in achieving valid measures of student academic achievement. Although the two are linked, internal and external factors may also interfere so that self-concept may not always match actual performance; this could therefore skew results (Caprara et al., 2011, p. 78). Similar problems could also be seen with regards to self-reported attitudes (Alexander Winne, 2006, p. 330). It is also important that both were measured, as there is evidence that objectively measured academic achievement and subjective attitudes may not directly correlate (See Khoo, 2011, p. 180). Data were analysed using SPSS. It is not made entirely clear which statistical tests were used to a nalyse the data, but the presence of a column marked t in the results tables would appear to indicate that the students t test was used. This would have been an appropriate test to use for comparison of two samples, in this case taking boys and girls as separate samples and analyzing for a difference with respect to other variables. However, it is possible that some of the assumptions of this test may have been violated. First, the test assumes that all observations are independent (Gliner Morgan, 2009, p. 219). However there is evidence that peer influence may be a major factor determining attitudes towards science, which could indicate that these observations are not independent. Teacher influence is also important, so there could be trends within each class (Talton Simpson, 1985, p. 19; George, 2006, p. 571). Also, the test relies on all observations coming from a normal distribution (Gliner Morgan, 2009, p. 219). A sample size of 2 153 pupils was used. This was ge nerated using random sampling from a sampling frame of 68 different high schools and 137 12th Grade classes. The sample was stratified according to the major studied by the pupil, although there were different numbers of each included: 926 in biology, 484 in physics and 249 in chemistry. This was based on inclusion of 68 biology classes, 39 physics classes and 18 chemistry classes. As a control group there were also 404 non-science majors included, from 26 different classes. As a large sample size was used, it would be expected that the distribution would approach normal, therefore this assumption may be upheld (Underhill Bradfield, 2004, p. 8). However the assumption that the variance of the dependent variables is approximately equal could be called into question given the unequal sizes of the different groups (Gliner Morgan, 2009, p. 219). The authors inferred that boys excel in physics and application. This was based on the results for these areas within the general sci ence test (3M), as well as in the tool specifically measuring achievement in physics (3P). Although all study participants were reportedly administered the 3M general science test, this is inconsistent with the results presented, which include a total of only 1590 participants. The number of boys taking the physics 3P test was also much larger than the number of girls, possibly leading to questioning of the assumptions underlying the t test (Gliner Morgan, 2009, p. 219). The authors also concluded that the girls outperformed boys on the biology test 3B. Here too, the number of girls was much larger than the number of boys in the sample. This also appeared to be inconsistent with the results of the general science test 3M. On this same basis, the authors concluded that there was no difference in chemistry achievement for those majoring in one of the subjects. There was no set of results presented for the general science test broken down according to major studied. This mean s that it is difficult to determine whether this is the case, or whether this conclusion could also be applied to those not majoring in science. There was no evidence of confounding, as there was no individual area in which girls significantly outperformed boys. This same trend was also seen in the non-science participants. The authors also concluded that non-science students are scientifically illiterate. Although this could be judged to be true when comparing the results achieved by participants in the 3M and 3N tests, it is not clear whether these two tests were different. In addition, there were a much larger number of participants completing the 3M than the 3N test. Attitudes Towards Science Understanding the attitude of pupils towards science is also important as this is linked to achievement (Koballa Crawley, 1985, p. 222). Inference regarding major subject choice was that girls had a preference for biology and non-science, while boys had a preference for physics. This was appropriate, based simply on comparison of proportions studying each subject. Attitudes towards science were measured using a 40-item scale (3ATT). Scientific or cognitive preference was measured using a 20-item Cognitive Preference Inventory (PREF). One issue with the use of this type of instrument is that there needs to be some assessment to ensure that there is consistency across items in measuring a given construct (See Khoo, 2011, p. 181). The authors concluded that boys had more positive attitude towards science than girls. This was justified according to analysis of the specific questions regarding science being important to both themselves and to society. However given that the a ttitude scale (3ATT) had 40 items, this represents only a small number of the questions to which responses were generated. Similar could also be said of conclusions drawn on attitudes toward science learning, attitude toward learning and school, interest in biology and inquiry experiences, and self-perception of achievement in science and math. As with attitudes toward science, the tables presented by the authors provided only a small snapshot of the completed survey instruments. Therefore it is difficult to determine whether the responses provided to other items were also consistent with the inferred conclusions. The authors concluded that there were no differences between the preferences of boys and girls with regard to cognitive modes. However there were no results presented from which to understand whether there could have been small differences. There was also no analysis according to stratification of participants in terms of major. The authors concluded that there we re gender differences with regard to science career orientations. They also concluded that there was an almost perfect match between the subjects which the pupils chose to major in and their future career aspirations. Both of these conclusions were justified by the data presented and the results of the t test analysis. Other Explanatory Factors It would be argued that the major omission from this study was the failure to relate the different variables on which data were collected. This could have provided a more detailed picture of the gender differences and could have provided a more realistic picture of the interaction between different factors in determining pupils choices with regards to science education. Importantly it could also have provided more information on whether differences observed were all due to gender individually or whether other factors contributed more towards differences, but were perhaps themselves influenced by gender. This would be expected on the basis of numerous other research studies which have indicated that there is a complex interplay of factors determining achievement in science, including internal and external factors (Wolf Fraser, 2008, p. 321). One of the most important findings reported by the authors may relate to the differences in socioeconomic status between boys and girl s in the study sample, which has been shown to be an important influence on academic achievement by other authors (Sirin, 2005, p. 417). Their results indicated that boys had a higher socioeconomic status on average. They suggested that this implied more girls of lower socioeconomic status elected to major in science in high school. However it is not possible to infer causality from this type of statistical test. It could instead be that more boys of higher socioeconomic status choose to major in science, or a combination of the two. This would appear to be more consistent with their conclusion that boys with lower socioeconomic status tend to select vocational courses. It doesnt explain what girls of higher socioeconomic status choose to major in. It could also be merely a coincidental finding. Importantly, this inequality in socioeconomic status could also be a potential explanatory factor for some of the other differences between boys and girls reported in the study. Th e authors concluded that this was not the case with respect to analysis of the data on physics achievement. Analysis of covariance when SES was maintained at a constant level demonstrated that there remained significant differences between boys and girls in this respect. However it may have been more pertinent to perform multivariate regression analysis on this data instead. There was unfortunately no inclusion of this variable in the models used to analyse the differences in other factors. Conclusions Overall, the statistical inference of the authors was accurate in identifying simple trends in the data. However more complex statistical analysis, such as the use of multiple regression modeling could have better elucidated the relationships between the variables explored. There is some consideration given by the authors as to the implications of their findings, but this type of analysis could have provided results more relevant to practice. There is also little discussion of the generalizability of the findings to the wider population. Yet this may be an important consideration if the results were to be used to shape educational policy and programme design. It would be suggested that the results could only be partially generalizable, as the study sample would not reflect the same type of distribution of characteristics of individuals in other countries. For example as the study was conducted in Israel all those included in the sample were Jewish. References Alexander, P.A. Winne, P.H. (2006) Handbook of Educational Psychology – 2nd Edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 330. Buchmann, C., DiPrete, T.A. McDaniel, A. (2008) Gender inequalities in education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 319-337. Caprara, G.V., Vecchione, M., Alessandri, G., Gerbino, M. Barbaranelli, C. (2011) The contribution of personality traits and self-efficacy beliefs to academic achievement: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(1), 78-96. Cassen, R. Kingdon, G. 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